REVISION NOTES

~Countries divided~

Sri Lanka: A Divided Island

Three major races: Sinhalese, Tamils, Moors
>> Largest group: Sinhalese à Buddhist, speak Sinhala
>> 2nd largest group: Tamils à Hindus, speak Tamil language

Indian Tamils heavily concentrated in the highland districts (tea plantation workers)
Sri Lankan Tamils make up more than 95% of population in Jaffna Peninsula, 70% in Batticaloa District, large minorities in northern and eastern provinces
Sinhalese found in large numbers everywhere except in Jaffna and Batticaloa districts.
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WHY ARE THE SINHALESE AND TAMILS IN CONFLICT?

Citizenship rights
o In 1948, Sri Lanka granted citizenship only to those who were either born in Sri Lanka or those whose fathers and grandfathers were also born there

o Indian Tamils who were brought from India to Sri Lanka (by the British) to work in tea plantations became stateless, not citizens of any country. They were thus denied basic rights like voting.

o In 1964, India helped these people by holding discussions with Sri Lanka to allow a certain no. of Indian Tamils to return to India, while the rest were to be granted Sri Lankan citizenship.

o However till the late 1980s, this agreement was not carried out in full by Sri Lanka. (100,000 Tamils still stateless)
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Jobs In The Government Service

o When under the British rule, the English-educated Tamils could enter the government service and be promoted. They had the most powerful jobs although they were a minority in the country. The Sinhalese, though the majority, were disadvantaged as they could not read & write English well.

o With independence, the Sri Lankan government decided to improve the position of the Sinhalese by making Sinhala the only language of administration in 1956 (under Official Language Act). Tamils in the government service were given 3 years to learn Sinhala or be dismissed, which upset them as they could not secure jobs or be promoted. A peaceful demonstration against the Official Language Act was disrupted by Sinhala supporters, thus resulting in rioting, causing over a hundred deaths.
o At the end of 1957 July, Bandaranaike (Sri Lankan Prime Minister) signed a pact with Tamil leader Chelvanayakam to make Tamil the language of a national minority and to allow its use as a language of administration, but only in northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka (where majority are Tamils)
o However this was met with strong protests from Sinhalese. Agreement withdrawn in 1958. Next few months: tension increased. Fighting, many died & many homeless.
o 1978: Sri Lankan Constitution granted a greater measure of recognition to the Tamil Language and made it the language of administration where the majority were Tamils. English was encouraged to be taught in schools as a link language to facilitate communication among the different racial groups.
o Tamil accepted as official language since 1987 but still not widely used.

University Admission
o Before 1970: admission based on merit, examinations in English. Equal no. of Tamil and Sinhalese students in more respected courses (medical, engineering). However the Sinhalese were unhappy that the no. of Sinhalese students in these courses was not proportionate to the nos. in the country.
o From 1970 onwards: Education policies made it compulsory for Tamil students to score higher marks than the Sinhalese students to enter the same courses.
o Next 4 yrs: other schemes of university admission which made it more difficult for Tamil youths to enter. Percentage of Tamil students admitted to engineering fell, more Sinhalese youths able to enter.

Resettlement of Population
o Resettling of poor Sinhalese peasants cause resentment among Tamils. (transferred from densely-populated south-western and central areas into Tamil areas)
o Implemented to provide land for the landless Sinhalese peasants to live on and to cultivate padi. Tamils unhappy because the Sinhalese peasants were not the only ones who moved there. Buddhist monks and Sri Lankan army (mostly Sinhalese) also came.

WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE SINHALESE-TAMIL CONFLICT?
Armed Conflict
o Tamils felt like second-class citizens because of these policies and tried to voice their unhappiness. At first they made peaceful demands.
v E.g. Early 1950s: Federal Party (Tamil political party) asked that the Tamil areas be recognised as a federation within the country. Did not ask for separate state then and didn’t use violence in its demands
o 1976: demands of Tamils not met, a new political party called the Tamil United Liberation Front emerged. Asked for a separate independent state (called Tamil Eelam). Members of the party believed that only separation from Sri Lanka would ensure the rights of the Tamils.
o Sri Lankan govt rejected the idea. Tamil youths, angry and dissatisfied, formed a militant group, the Liberation Tiger of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and resorted to violence. Known more popularly as Tamil Tigers, they were considered terrorists.
o Started attacking Tamil members of the police force, Tamil members and supporters of the ruling party, and Tamil politicians who didn’t support the proposed separate state. Soon started attacking the Sinhalese
o Sinhalese had also showed their hostility towards the Tamils, sometimes through violence. First anti-Tamil riot occurred in 1956 as a response to the Tamils’ peaceful protest against the ‘Sinhalese Only’ language policy. Hundreds of Tamils dead and lost their property worth millions of dollars). Tamils forced to flee for their lives. Unfortunately, these anti-Tamil riots were encouraged by Sinhalese security forces such as the Sinhalese-dominated army. 1983 riots: 1000s of Tamils fled to Tamil Nadu in South India, Indian govt forced to intervene.
o Often, children grow up with the prejudices of their racial or religious group and remain hostile to another group throughout their lives.

Unemployment
o In riots and armed struggles, many people are killed (usually breadwinners of families)
o Riots in 1983: massive unemployment (1000s of factory worker, self-employed persons and plantation workers lost their jobs
o Large no. of the jobless people were Sinhalese who took part in the vandalising, looting and burning their places of work such as garment factories. Thus in a conflict between groups, all parties suffer.

Loss of Investments From Other Countries
o Time of instability, investors from other countries may not have the confidence to invest
o Investments from other countries dropped from US$66 million in 1982 to US$39 million in 1983 and further to US$22 million in 1986.

Fall in Number of Tourists
o Tourism, one of Sri Lanka’s major income earners, was seriously damaged by the violent internal conflict. Tourist arrivals steadily decreased after the July 1983 riots, which resulted in a loss of jobs and fall in earnings, which affected the economy.
o Less funds to develop amenities and facilities (e.g. transport and housing)

Foreign Intervention
o Conflict in a country might attract the attention of another country, which may offer to play the role of a mediator or interfere directly by sending troops in to resolve the conflict.
o Attracted attention of India, which at first tried to be a mediator (July 1983 riots) by sending its Foreign Minister to Sri Lanka to mediate in a dialogue between the Sinhalese and the Tamils. The dialogue failed as the parties involved could not come to an agreement
o 3 June 1987: the Indian govt sent a flotilla of 20 Indian ships to Jaffna to send food and petroleum products to the Sri Lankan Tamils but was turned back by the Sri Lankan army. So the Indian Air Force dropped food and medical supplies in Jaffna the following day and violated the Sri Lankan airspace
o July 1987: Sri Lanka agreed to sign a peace accord with India (under pressure from India). Was to be truce between Tamil Tigers and Sri Lankan forces. Tamil Tigers were to surrender their arms to the Indian peacekeeping troops, and the accord called for the merging of the Tamil-dominated northern provinces with the eastern provinces.
o October 1987: Tigers failed to fully surrender weapons, Indian troops took control of the Tiger-controlled Jaffna by force. From Oct 1987 to Dec 1988, most of the clashes in the north and east of Sri Lanka were between the Indian peacekeeping force and the Tamil Tigers
o Peacekeeping force withdrawn in March 1990

AFTERMATH
Tension and hostilities still exist. Sept 2002: peace talks began in Thailand between the Sri Lankan Government and Tamil Tigers.

Northern Ireland: A Troubled Land
Protestants and Catholics fighting each other over religious and political differences
2 political entities: UK and Republic of Ireland. UK: England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland. Britain: Scotland, Wales and England
Before 12th century: Northern Ireland and Republic of Ireland were one country (Ireland)
In 12th century: Ireland conquered and colonised by England. 1690: King James II (England, Catholic) forced to flee to the north of Ireland when he failed to force the Catholic religion on the Protestants in England. In Northern Ireland, he tried to defeat the local Protestants with his army. New King of England, William of Orange (Protestant) arrived there and defeated King James. Battle was known as Battle of Boyne; King William remains a hero of the Protestants.
English rule of Ireland in 17th century: English landlords in Ireland brought in Protestant Scottish and English settlers to increase the Protestant population. Newcomers mostly settled in Northern Ireland, pushing out many lock Irish Catholic farmer. Thus, Northern Ireland became predominantly Protestant
Irish fought against Scottish and English settlers without success, many live lost. 1800: Ireland became part of UK, but hostilities between the local Catholics and Protestants continued. Late 1800s: some local Irish demanded Home Rule, fighting often broke out.
1921: Ireland divided into 2 separate parts, based on majority religion of each part. Northernàlargely Protestant, remained part of UK. Southern IrelandàLargely Catholic, known as Irish Free State
Both Northern Ireland and Irish Free State had their own Parliament, but continued to recognise English monarchy and laws regarding foreign affairs. 1949: Irish Free State cut ties with Britain, became Republic of Ireland
1993 Northern Ireland: 1 million Protestants (mostly Scottish and English origin), 600000 Catholics (mostly descendants of local Irish inhabitants)
Before 1972: Northern Ireland had its own parliament at Stormont Castle near Belfast. Since 1972: ruled directly by British parliament in London, PM of Britain chooses Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland govt in charge of internal affairs (health, finance, commerce, educatn), foreign affairs in the hands of Britain. Majority of ministers in Northern Ireland are Protestants.

THE PROTESTANT-CATHOLIC TENSION
Divided Loyalties
o Most Protestants regard themselves as British, wish to see the country continue as part of UK, afraid of union with Rep of Ireland (Catholic), since Catholic government would not be tolerant of their Protestant beliefs
o Catholics in Northern Ireland see themselves as Irish, would like their country to be reunited with Ireland. Also resent the past history of English conquest where Catholics were either massacred or treated harshly, remembered long struggle for Home Rule
o Protestants still celebrate anniversary of Battle of Boyne as a mark of Protestant dominance. Usually march through Catholic residential areas. Sense of loyalty to diff countries makes the Protestants and Catholics intolerant of each other.

The Education System
o In Northern Ireland today, there are public schools that cater for Protestants only and private schools that cater for Catholics only, schools for Catholics partly funded by govt
o Protestant children learn British history, play British sports (rugby, hockey, cricket), very loyal to Britain. Catholic children learn Irish history, take up Irish sports (hurling), are taught Irish language and culture à tend to regard Britain as foreign country
o There are mixed schools to cater for both Protestants and Catholics, set up by private individuals. But they are not as popular as the schools which cater to just one religious group. Thus Protestant and Catholic children rarely get to meet and know each other à generations of children grow up to be distrustful of each other and this makes them even more hostile to each other

Employment
o Competition for jobs à Catholics feel that though they are academically qualified as Protestants, they do not have the same opportunity in getting the jobs that they want
o 1971: population survey revealed that Catholic males were two-and-a-half times more likely to be jobless than Protestant males. Also, no. of Catholic engineers and civil engineers not proportionate to their nos. in the country. Relatively fewer Catholics in senior positions in the public and private sectors

Housing
o Provision of public housing by city council is another grievance of the Irish Catholics. Public houses partly paid by govt, councils usually consist largely of Protestants
o Often, large Catholic families in need of housing are delayed in getting their houses. 1968: 71% of houses in Dungannon given to Protestants though 53% of the ppl there were Catholics. Catholics frustrated as the shortage of houses meant they would have to wait for many years before they were given their own houses à unfair

Voting Rights
o Before 1968: voting rights a problem in the Protestant-Catholic relationship. Each household entitled to 2 votes, companies entitled to more votes depending on size. Since many companies owned by richer Protestants, they had more votes. Also, Catholics unhappy that voting districts were often drawn up to include a large proportion of Protestants
o Since 1968: everyone entitled to one vote (British subject, lived in UK for 7 yrs), voting districts redrawn to ensure fairness.
o Voting rights no longer a problem, but conflict persists till today as other issues (housing, employment) have not been addressed

HOW DID THE CATHOLICS MAKE THEIR DEMANDS?
From Peaceful Protest Marches to Violence
o Mid 1960s: Civil Rights Movement emerged to demand for equal rights and to protest against unfair treatment of the Catholics. It made peaceful demands for basic rights (housing, jobs, educatn, voting), but was met with hostility and violence from some Protestants, including the police force who thought it was an attempt to weaken the govt. Marked the beginning of a period known as The Troubles
o As the situation worsened, govt called for more help. August 1969: Brit Army units sent there to keep the order. Catholics welcomed them at first as they thought they would be protected. However the army began searching their homes and arresting suspects à Catholics lost faith in Brit Army
o 1972: peaceful civil rights march shot at by Brit soldiers. 13 civilians shot dead, many more wounded. Referred to as Bloody Sunday, turning point for Protestant-Catholic ties
o After 1972: more violence. Catholic homes sometimes petrol-bombed by Protestant mobs in the middle of the night, forcing the families to flee. When the Catholics left, their houses were looted by the mobs. Businesses and pubs which belonged to Catholics were also burnt and bombed. Local police force witnessed but did not stop them. Brit Army often raided Catholic homes, using force and damaging property
o Feeling more desperate, Catholics turned to Irish Republican Army (IRA) for help. It’s an illegal organisation formed largely of Northern Irish Catholics, aim is to use violence to drive the Brit Army and the representatives of the Brit govt out
o Between 1969 and 1993: more than 3000 ppl killed in Protestant-Catholic conflict, IRS responsible for 2/3 of deaths and killing of innocent Protestants

EFFECTS OF THE PROTESTANTS CATHOLIC CONFLICT
Conflict not resolved, innocent often caught in middle of violence.
o E.g. many of the 1750 who died between 1969 and 1977 were not directly involved in the inter-grp violence
Many ppl grow up with prejudices against each other
Affected its economic development. Since the start of the inter-grp violence, economy adversely affected. Tourism decline as violence has frightened away tourists

AFTERMATHThroughout 1970s and 1980s, IRS and reps from Brit govt met to resolve the conflict but failed to come to an agreement. Late 1990sà Brit govt, Irish govt, IRA, Northern Ireland community leaders actively discussed the Northern Ireland peace accord. Peace accord rejected by splinter grp (a grp of ppl who decide to break away from a large grp and form a separate organisation because they no longer agree with the views of the larger group) of IRA, which responded with a series of bomb attacks in Belfast. Agreement reached in 1998. However peace if not certain for Northern Ireland as tension still exists in some sectors of the communi