REVISION NOTES

Three types of bao zhang bao dao:
- yi ban xian xiang/she hui xian xiang
- ge an
- zheng ce

What to write for yi ban xian xiang:
1) state your views
2) Analyse the reason for the phenomenon
3) ‘reflect’: consequences, effects etc.
4) suggest possible solutions
5) conclusion

What to write for ge an:
1. state views
2. analyse problem/root of the problem (note: remember to state that it is a possibility, and not assume that it IS really the root of the problem)
3. Construct a stand
4. Bring it up to a higher level (e.g. how would a suicide over lousy grades affect other students in Singapore? Suicide over lousy grades: is it because the society is giving us too much stress? That kind of rubbish)
5. Ways to counter the problem
6. conclusion

What to write for zheng ce:
1. state views
2. State stand
3. analyse good and bad points about the policy
4. predict the results of the policy ie what effect would it have on the affected people?
5. Conclusion: reiterate stand


yi lun shou fa:
- analogy
- examples
- quotes
- contrast


please remember to memorise your ge shi! Losing marks over wrong format isn’t worth it! Hahaha good luck guys!

-- hh! (:

DIAMOND and GRAPHITE
this is something like a continuation I guess. more in-depth (:

DIAMOND


1. tetrahedral structure
-each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 4 other carbon atoms
2. hard (due to covalent bonds)
3. high melting point (3550 degC) and boiling point (4827 degC)
-a lot of heat energy is required to break the covalent bonds
4. does not conduct electricity
-carbon has 4 valence electrons and since it is tetrahedral all 4 electrons are used in bonding, so there are no mobile charged particles
5. an allotrope of carbon
-different forms of the same element

USES OF DIAMOND
1. as tips of drills to drill through the ground/seabed (due to hardness)
2. grinding (hardness again)
3. polishing


GRAPHITE


1. made of flat layers of carbon atoms. layers have weak van der waal's forces between them. each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three others.
2. "soft” and slippery
- the layers have weak van der waal's forces between them, and slide off easily, giving the impression that it is soft.
3. high melting point (3652-3697 degC) and boiling point (4200 degC)
- covalent bonds between carbon atoms within each layer need a lot of heat energy to break
4. can conduct electricity
- unlike diamond each atom is bonded to three others so there is one extra delocalised electron that is free and mobile and thus graphite can conduct electricity because there are charged particles
5. an allotrope of carbon
- in fact, graphite is the stablest allotrope of carbon, even diamond will become graphite. you can like observe it (but WAIT LONG LONG!)

USES OF GRAPHITE
1. lubricant (soft and slippery to reduce friction, and can be used at high temperatures as well due to high MP and BP)
2. pencil lead (soft, layers slide off onto paper and stick there)
3. inert electrode for electrophoresis (good conductor of electricity)

RECOMMENDED TIME ALLOCATION FOR EXAMS!

Language Arts: Compo (55min), Unseen (55min), checking (5min). Paper 2: compre+vocab (50min), summary (25min), aq (25min), checking (5min).

Math: dunno...8 to 9 minutes per question?

HCL: zonghe (10min), lijie1 (15min), lijie2 (1h20min), suoduan (15min)

SS: sourcebased (45min), structured (45min)

chem: MCQ each question about 1 minute plus, leave moles to last.

(bio and physics about the same i guess, since same format. anyone wants to edit please do so. and add the geog and history and bsp. if you want to!)

Nitrogen and Hydrogen can produce Ammonia (l). It is done by the Haber process, discovered (or whatever) by Fritz Haber. Was he French? I thought he was French but oh well who cares.

It is a reversible process. Remember your double headed arrow because it is reversible.

Remember to learn how to label the diagram. Only about 10% of the nitrogen and hydrogen are made into ammonia and the rest of it is return so as to save cost. There is also a heat regulator using water but I don't think this is very important HAHA.

The ---BELL JUST RANG. CONTINUE WHEN I GET HOME!

Hello. Er this is quite wuliao lah since I'm just typing out what Mr Kuo said? Haha.

- Skip mole calculation questions for MCQ. They are there to make you lose track of time!
- Do other questions first. Like duh isn't that the same point. HAHA.
- Actually that was the only thing wasn't it? (:

Droughts: unusually long dry period when there is a shortage of water for human, animal use, cultivation
-due to prolonged period of reduction of rainfall ovr an area which causes less water stored in grd, rivers
Effects: 1. farming: ground too dry for crops and plants to grow well and healthily > expensive
2. increased meat price: higher price of animal feed
3. loss of crops & death of livestock
4. famine: insufficient food
Sahel: long belt of land bordering the southern part of the Sahara, stretches 5000km right across Africa
-frm Mauritania & Senegal to Sudan & Ethopia
-annual rainfall btwn 300mm-600mm
-savannah: tall grasses, scrubs & scattered trees
Desertification: 1. climatic change: low rainfall, drying up of land & water bodies, vegetation dies, barren ground, soil erosion
2. overcultivation: no time for replenishing of nutrients, soil structure destroyed, soil erosion
3. deforestation: less interception, fewer roots to bind soil, ground exposed, soil erosion
4. overgrazing: grass cannot re-establish, soil structure destroyed, soil erosion
Causes: 1. droughts: baked land is difficult to plough & useless for grazing; bush fires destroy grassland & crops; top soil is converted to dust
2. overcultivation: rapid population growth; need for more food; land is not given time to rest
-makes soil susceptible to soil erosion
3. deforestation: increased population: trees cut down to provide wood; fewer roots; erosion
4. overgrazing: nomadic tribes try to enlarge their livestock; hooves destroy soil structure
Effects: 1. malnutrition, starvation, famines, diseases
2. ecological refugees: farmers moved to cities
3. walk further for water & firewood
Measures to prevent: 1. sinking >1500 wells in Mali for growing vegetables
2. practise water harvesting: create small stone walls to interrupt rainfall so it infiltrates into soil
3. planting trees in Senegal, Ethiopia: reduce wind velocity, protect top soil from erosion

Floods: body of water that covers usually dry area
Factors: 1.basin size, shape, relief: smaller and more circular basin, steep sided: shorter lag time
2. types of precipitation: prolonged heavy rain, intense storms: saturated ground, more surface runoff
snow: water held in storage, river level drops; reaches river when temperature rises & snow melts
3. landuse: vegetation intercepts rainfall, reduce throughflow; water cannot infiltrate concrtete, water is carried quickly to rivers via drains & gutters
4. permeability: permeable rocks allow rapid infiltration; sandy soil more porous, allow rapid infiltration; clays less porous, more surface runoff
5. storm surges: when water in the sea is raised to a great height by strong onshore winds blowing ovr it
-gigantic wave formed that breaks upon the land & floods it when it reaches the coast
Effects: 1. destroy dams & other structures & habitats
2, sweep away people & property
3. disrupt water & electricity supply, communications
4. widespread famine, diseases: cholera, typhoid fvr
Benefits: 1. fertile soil: alluvium deposits in water
2. irrigation: readily available water
3. gentle relief: favour farming & settlements; easy to build houses & use machines
4. cheap & easy water transport
5. some ppl are ignorant of disastrous consequences
Prevention: 1. channelisation: deepening, widening, clearing or lining of river channel with concrete: water flow away faster (expensive & impractical)
2. building levees: reinforce & increase height of river’s sides to reduce risk of flooding (however, if water goes beyond them, they prevent water frm flowing back into the river
3. building a dam across a valley: allows the control of the amt of water & can be used for electricity (expensive; some valleys unsuitable; affect env)
Case study: Bangladesh: causes: 1. low relief: flood plain & delta occupy 80%; land mostly 10m>sea
2. land drainage: ganges, brahmaputra, meghna brg in 2billion tonnes of sediment/yr, raise beds
3. snow melt: may & june: himalayans mtns snow melt
4. monsoon rain: southwest monsoon brgs heavy rainfall; grnd is saturated; increased surface runoff
5. storm surges: april-may, sep-nov, tropical cyclones
-narrowness of bay of Bengal force storm surge to move inland & flood low lying areas
6. deforestation: firewood, construction, agriculture
Effects: water borne diseases contaminated water
Nov1970: 8m high, powerful winds, 80% rice
Sep 1988: 75% flooded, rds & bridges damaged
1991: 6m high, 1milion tones of rice washed into sea

Tropical storms: violent swirling winds; intense low pressure systems; accompanied by strong winds
-originate ovr seas & oceans (btwn 6oN/S & 20oN/S)
-in summer & autumn (sea surface >27oC)
Formation: 1. air ovr oceans get heat, expand & rise
2. creates low pressure>air frm surrounding rush in a spiralling manner to replace rising warm air
3. air may spin at 200km/h, absorbs large amt of moisture; forms cumulonimbus & heavy rain
4. fades as it reaches land as no more moist air
-calm dry weather in eye (30-50kmD) lowest pressure due to descending cold air
-surrounded by wall of high cumulonimbus clouds under which experiences strong winds & heavy rain
-moist air is drawn to eye
-spirals anti clockwise in N hemi & vice versa
Effects: orissa state, India in 1999: cyclone 300km/h
-released much rain; fast & sudden
-ppl unprepared: 9000 died 200000 houses destroyed; livestock drowned
-international aid called in to help deal with victims

YESSSSS! DONE TYPING GEOG NOTESSS! :))))) this time is wrg it is FOUR FORTY EIGHT AM IN THE MORNING NOW. i shall go slp aft printing them out heeheehee. - lala

Drainage basin (catchment area): area of land drained by a river & its tributaries
-source: beginning of river
-mouth: where water is emptied
River discharge: volume of water flowing through a particular point in the river in a given time
=area of cross section (m2) X velocity of flow (m/s)
Drainage density: average length or river/unit area
-length of all the streams in drainage basin added up divided by the area of the drainage basin

Drainage patterns: arrangement of a river & its tributaries in a drainage basin
1. dendritic pattern: tributaries flow into main river at acute angles (tree like branching)
-usually develops in area with homogenous rocks or rocks with similar resistance
2. radial pattern: rivers flow down in all directions form a central high point (conical hill / volcano)
3. trellised pattern: developed in area with alternate bands of rocks with different resistance
-tributaries flow along less resistant rock, joins main river at right angles
4. centripetal pattern: common in inland basins & desert regions: streams from various directions drain towards centre of a depression (lake, lowland basin)

Hydrological cycle: 1. infiltration: some water that reaches the ground soaks into the soil subsurface
-some flow sideways as throughflow
-some are absorbed by roots of trees & transpired back to atmosphere
2. percolation: some water moves further down into unsaturated underlying soil & rock layers
-results n large amt of underground water that collects on top of an impermeable rock layer
3. base flow (ground water flow): water that flows sideways frm water table
4.overland flow (surface runoff): when precipitation exceeds infiltration rate > high in urban areas
5. evapotranspiration: loss of moisture frm earth’s surface to atmosphere
-evaporation frm water bodies
- transpiration frm vegetation

Storm hydrograph: shows variations in river discharge at a particular point in a rive over a certain period of time
-river does not rise immediately aft storm starts
-river level rises quickly (steep rising limb) later when surface runoff & throughflow arrive
-peak discharge: river level at its highest
-lag time: difference in time between highest rainfall & peak discharge
-recession limb is not as steep as the rising limb as throughflow is still entering the river
-river is maintained by the base flow after water brought by the storm has drained away
Factors affecting shape of storm hydrograph: 1.basin size, shape, relief: smaller and more circular basin, steep sided: shorter lag time
2. types of precipitation: prolonged heavy rain, intense storms: saturated ground, more surface runoff
snow: water held in storage, river level drops; reaches river when temperature rises & snow melts
3. extreme hot or cold temperature restricts infiltration, increase surface runoff; high evapotranspiration rate, less water flows into river
4. landuse: vegetation intercepts rainfall, reduce throughflow; water cannot infiltrate concrtete, water is carried quickly to rivers via drains & gutters
5. rock type: permeable rocks allow rapid infiltration
6. soil type: sandy soil more porous, allow rapid infiltration; clays less porous, more surface runoff
7. drainage density: higher, greater chance of floods

Energy of river: mostly used to overcome friction with river bed & sides; erosion & transportation
-when energy is low, materials are deposited
-energy depends on velocity of flow & volume
Velocity of river: 1. gradient of land: steeper, faster
2. roughness of channel: rougher, slower
-more energy used to overcome friction
3. shape of channel cross section: more wetted perimeter (length of river sides & bed), more friction
-symmetrical channel: water flows faster mid stream, slower near sides & bed
-asymmetrical channel: water flows faster at concave bank, slower at convex bank due to shallower water
Volume of water: 1. size of drainage basin: larger basin, bigger volume (tributaries increase volume)
2. vegetation cover: thick cover, more interception, less runoff to river
3. rainfall: higher, greater volume
4. temperature: high temperature, high rate of evaporation, less volume
5. permeability of rocks & ground surface: more permeable, less surface runoff, less volume

River erosion: vertical & horizontal erosion
1. abrasion/corrasion: uses river load to grind sides & bed of channel
2. hydraulic action: swift flowing water breaks and loosens rocks
3. attrition: rocks in river load hit again one another, becoming smaller, smoother & more rounded
4. solution/corrosion: river dissolves minerals

River transportation: 1. solution: carries dissolved minerals (calcium & sodium)
2. suspension: fine particles carried (sand silt clay)
3. saltation: gravel, coarse sand bounce on river bed
4. traction: bigger pebbles & boulders rolled along
_saltation & traction loads form the bedload

River deposition: when volume & speed of water decreases; carry a greater load than it can support
Volume decreases when: 1. little or rain falls
2. flows across arid area with high evaporation rate
3. flows across permeable rocks
4. flood water brought by storm has drained away
Speed decreases when: 1. sudden change of gradient
2. river flows into another body of water
3. increase in wetted perimeter: more friction
4. water flowing in shallow section (convex bank of meander) encounters friction
5. obstructions (mounds of deposits & protruding rocks) roughen channel & increase friction
_heaviest materials are deposited first

Course of river: 1. upper: a. river channel: small, narrow rough, usually shallow
b. river valley: deep, narrow, steep sided, v shaped
c. work of river: most energy used to overcome friction of rough channel, little energy for erosion
-during heavy downpour, increased volume enables vertical erosion: bedload swirls in whirlpool
-headward erosion: throughflow reaches surface & undercuts the overlying rocks & soil
d. landforms: i. rapids: short & fast flowing turbulent falls of water along a river; water is quite shallow
-alternating bands of resistant & less resistant rocks: less resistant rocks are eroded faster
ii. waterfalls: sudden fall of water vertically+rapidly
_formed when river flows frm a band of resistant rock to less resistant rock (Niagara falls)
-resistant rock can be vertical (sill), horizontal or dip upstream (dyke)
-less resistant rock downstream erodes faster: causes change in gradient of river
_formed when faulting causes land to be displaced
-difference in height causes water to cascade down
-waterfall retreats upstream, gorge is formed at downstream part of waterfall (Victoria falls Africa)
iii. plunge pools: depression at foot of waterfall
-enlarge & deepened by hydraulic action of plunging water; rock debris swirled abt > abrasion
iv. gorge: deep narrow valley w very steep sides
-formed when waterfall retreats upstream
v. potholes: depressions in river bed
-formed by abrasion: pebbles trapped in slight hollows & swirled about in the currents & turbulence of fast flowing water; enlarge & deepen the holes
2. middle: a. river channel: wider & deeper; asymmetrical cross section; meanders; bigger volume of water; less gradient
b. river valley: more open v shape - lateral erosion
- weathering & mass wasting of river sides
c. work of river: gentler gradient less vertical erosion
-increased volume & load used for lateral erosion
-energy used to transport load
-deposition occurs on meander convex banks
d. landforms: meanders, river cliffs, slip off slopes
meanders: forms when river meets an obstacle; erode and undercuts concave banks at outer bends
-water moves in a spiral manner, fast at concave
-materials deposited at convex: slow due to friction
3. lower: a. river channel: widest & deepest, smooth channel floor; irregularities in bed filled w sediment
-largest volume due to tributaries
b. river valley: wide & flat bottomed: lateral erosion
c. work of river: lateral erosion on concave banks of meanders; to deposit the load it is transporting
d. landforms: i. flood plains: wide & low lying plain found on both sides of river; covered by deposition
levees: embankments found along banks, coarser
-during heavy rain water overflows, meets friction
-deposits coarse material first (levee)
-smaller & lighter material deposited further away
ii. ox bow lakes: horseshoe or crescent shaped lakes
-cut off from river when narrow neck separating 2 ends of a meander is broken by lateral erosion on the concave banks or strong currents during a flood
-the ends are sealed by deposits on convex bank
-lake may dry up due to evaporation & percolation
iii. deltas: flat depositional plain at river mouths
-formed if load removal is slower than deposition
-water enters sea at individual mouths
1. active erosion in upper cause: enhance load
2. presence of shallow sea at river mouth
3. presence of gentle shope near shore
4. sheltered bay where tides are calm & weak
5. absence of large lakes along river course that might reduce the load
Shapes: 1. arcuate: triangular or fan shaped; deposits evenly spread out (nile delta)
2. bird’s foot: irregular shape; deposits unloaded rapidly at river mouth (Mississippi delta)
3. compound delta: complex in shape
4. estuarine delta: formed by infilling of an estuary

Uses of rivers: 1. hydro electric power: dams
2. irrigation: impt in drought prone areas
3. fertile alluvial soil: rice growing
4. transport, ports, harbours: cheap (chang jiang)
5. domestic uses: food, water for drinking, cooking
6. tourist attractions & recreational

Problems caused: 1. flooding: damage & loss of property & lives (huang he)
2. pollution: not suitable for drinking
OMG SO MANY THGS TO RMB!!! >.< - lala

Denudation: weathering down of earth’s surface through weathering, mass wasting & erosion
Weathering: disintegration & decomposition of rocks in situ; no transport involved
Mass wasting: movement of surface material down a slope due to gravity
Erosion: wearing away of rocks by moving agents & removal from their original site

Physical: breaking of rocks into smaller pieces
-size & shape altered but not chemical composition
-products are usually coarse & angularmost effective in areas with: 1. little vegetation
2. large diurnal temperature range
3. temperatures fluctuating around 0oC
Types: 1. frost shattering: water that enters the joints in rocks freezes and expands at night, causing stress on the rocks; rock breaks after many repetitions
-angular rock fragments gather at foot of slope to form scree slope
-ice crystals may grow in rock pores
2. block disintegration: splitting of rocks along the joints into blocks
3. exfoliation: outer layer of rocks expand in day & contract at night; cracks are formed, layers peel off
4. granular disintegration: different coloured mineral grains expand & contract at different rates; causes stress & rock will disintegrate grain by grain
5. salt crystal growth: in arid regions; water evaporates, leaving behind salt crystals in rock pores
-grow & swell, causing stress & rock slowly break up
6. hydration: some minerals swell as they absorb water; causes stress & weakens rock. Chemical structure is also changed when this happens
7. pressure release: when overlying rock material is eroded, the intrusive igneous rocks are exposed
-outer parts expand; causes stress; fractures form parallel to rock surface & break away

Chemical: decomposition of rocks when minerals in the rocks react chemically with rainwater, seawater, CO2 & O2 to form new chemical compounds
-alters physical structure & chemical composition
-effective in hot & wet areas
-weakens the rocks that break down over time
Types: 1. solution: more soluble minerals dissolve; parts of rock crumble off
2. carbonation: carbonic acid formed by CO2 & rainwater react with limestone to form a soluble substance calcium hydrogen carbonate
-enlarged & deepened joint: grike
-flat topped blocks btwn grikes: clint
-stalactites on roof & stalagmites on ground
3. hydrolysis: chemical reaction btwn some of the minerals in rocks and rainwater
In granite: consisting of feldspar, mica & quartz
-feldspar changes into clay that crumbles easily
-iron in mica is oxidised; quartz is unaltered
4. oxidation: chemical reaction btwn oxygen in air & water and the minerals in rocks
5. acid rain: rain absorbs sulphuric & nitric acids frm burning of fossil fuels; weathers rocks

Biological: can be a physical or a chemical process
1. roots of trees & plants grow in joints of rocks: exert pressure; widen & deepen them; rock structure loosened; enables other types of weathering to work
2. burrowing animals pry open cracks in rocks: exposes the rocks to other types of weathering
3. overgrazing: soil erosion; rocks exposed
4. humic acids frm decaying plants react chemically

Factors that affect rate & type of weathering
1. rock hardness: depends on minerals in rock
-igneous rocks: hard; sedimentary rocks: softer
-harder rock more resistant to weathering
2. mineral composition: impt influence ovr chemical weathering; some effect on physical weathering
_quartz more resistant to chemical
-basalt rock & limestone less resistant
_darker coloured minerals heat up faster
-darker basalt rocks weather faster physically
3. grain size: coarse grained decompose faster
-granite weather faster than rhyolite
-due to large gaps aft being hydrolysed
4. lines of weaknesses: well jointed weathers faster
-more rock surface exposed to weathering
5. relief: physical weathering more active on steep slopes: landslides; frost action etc on exposed rocks
-less chemical as water flows away more easily
Chemical weathering more active on flat land as water is retained and can act on underlying rocks
-less physical as rocks are sheltered by soil
6. vegetation cover: more weathering
-retains rainwater; humic & organic acid; roots grow
7. human activities: sulphur dioxide & nitrogen oxide acid rain; expose rocks when clearing land dvlpmnt
8. climate: a. temperature: big range > exfoliation
-fluctuate arnd 0oC > frost action
-high evaporation rate > salt crystal growth
-high humidity: water retained
-high temperature > faster rate of chemical
b. rainfall: heavy + high temperature > hydrolysis, carbonation, oxidation, fast plant growth

OCEANIC___________________CONTINENTAL
Sima (silicon + magnesium)_______Sial (silicon + aluminium)
Mainly basaltic________________Mainly granite
Thinner (5-10km)______________Thicker (35-40. 60-70km under mountain )
Denser (3g/cm3)_______________Less Dense (2.7g/cm3)
Younger_____________________Older
More continuous_______________Less continuous
Continental Drift – Alfred Wegner: started as Pangaea, drifted apart, formed current continents
-cause: convection currents-magma in mantle heats up, expands & rises, spread outs, cools, sinks, repeat
Evidence: 1. coastlines of continents fit together like jigsaw puzzle pieces (e.g. Africa and South America)
2. similar fossil of reptile found (e.g. Africa and South America)
3. identical fossil fern found (all southern continents)
4. rocks of same age and geological structure ( e.g. SW Africa and SE Brazil)
5. coal (which is formed under warm and wet conditions) found under Antarctic icecap
Plate Movements
Divergent (O&O): plates move apart
-tensional stresses cause fractures to occur
é new basaltic magma wells up, some melt
é erupts on surface as lava
é inject near the surface
é crystallize as igneous rocks
é become new sea floor, sea floor spreading
é forms oceanic ridges
é more basaltic magma piles up and solidifies
é forms a chain of mountains
é plates continue to move apart
é mountain move away from spreading zone
é youngest closest and oldest furthest
é earthquakes occur, volcanic activity
é basaltic magma escapes up fractures
é form submarine rift volcanoes
C&C: plates move apart
é faulting occurs, causes earthquake
é no new crust form
é formation of new sea (e.g. red sea)
é magma flows up cracks in crust
é volcanoes formed

Convergent (O&O):plates edges bent into deep oceanic trench [e.g. Marianas Trench in Pacific Ocean (Pacific plate dives below Philippines)]
é plate with lower percentage of continental crust would subduct
é subduction zone, subducting plate melts under high heat and friction
é silica-rich magma produced
é form chain of subduction volcanoes- island arc
é earthquake occurs: downward movement of subducting plate is not smooth
O&C: thinner and denser oceanic plate subducts
é long, narrow and deep oceanic trench is formed (e.g. Peru-Chile Trench off South American coast)
é faulting occurs, earthquake occurs
é downwards movement of plate not smooth
é subducting plate melts under high heat and friction, silica-rich magma formed
é being less dense, magma rises up fractures
é escapes through vents to the land surface
é forms subduction volcanoes
é continental late contorted and folded
é form fold mountains
C&C: no subduction
é one may be pushed under the other for a short distance
é both light and buoyant, no volcanic activity
é folding occurs, produce great uplift and highly contorted fold mountain ranges
é e.g. Himalayan Mountains (Indo-Australian and Eurasian)
é faulting and earthquakes

Transform: same direction @ diff speeds
é Pacific Plate and North American plate along the San Andreas Fault
é lithospheric material neither created not destroyed
é plates moving in different directions
é jerky movements causes earthquakes
é no volcanic activity

fold mountains: fold is a bend in rock strata
anticline: hill syncline: valley
folds: 1. simple fold: limbs with same steepness
2. asymmetrical fold: uneven limbs, uneven forces
3. overfold: both limbs sloping in same direction
4. recumbent fold: axis of fold is almost horizontal
5. overthrust fold: fractured recumbent fold
Circum pacific region: rocky mtns & andes, island arcs (japan & the philippines)
Eurasion Indonesian belt: atlas mtns Africa; alps southern Europe; Himalayas northern India
Himalayas mtns: indo-australian & Eurasian plates
-tethys sea separating India & asia subducted under Eurasian plate
-when asia & India continental mass met, folding of sediments occurred as there was no subduction
Andes mtns: nazca & south American plates
-oceanic nazca sinks under continental SA plate, being thinner and denser
-sediment on the ocean floor squeezed & crumpled
-silica rich magma rose thru fractures: subduction vol

Faulting: break or fracture in rocks where they are displaced. caused by stresses & strains
1. normal fault: tension; lithosphere is pulled apart
- one blocked lowered; forms steep scarp/cliff
2. reverse fault: compression; one block rises, forms overhanging escarpment which may be eroded
3. transform fault: adjacent blocks slide past horizontally along the fracture
Horst(block mtn): uplifted block w/ steep fault scarps
-caused by tension or compression
Tilt block: block mtn w one scarp
Rift valley/graben: elongated deep valley
-caused by tension or compression
-parallel faults form stepped scarps
-magma rises to form rift volcanoes at sides

Lava: lower silica content >higher temperature & more fluid
Basic: low silica content, fluid, rich in iron & magnesium, hot abt 1200oC, flows slowly & far
-produced at constructive boundaries
-quiet explosion as it allows expanding gases to escape easily thru the vent
-forms gently sloping volcanoes 2o-10o
Acid: high silica content, viscous, not so hot 800oC, solidifies quickly, does not flow far
-produced at destructive boundaries
-violent explosion as lava solidifies quickly & blocks the upward movement of expanding gases
-forms steep sided volcanoes
Lava plateau: built up by basaltic lava frm fissures
-spread ovr large area, solidifies: Columbia plateau

Volcano: 1. conical or dome shaped
2. crater: throws out gases, pyroclasts & lava
-enlarged crater (>1kmD) caldera; may contain lake
-caldera formed when removal of magma is faster than it can be replenished so summit collapses into magma chamber of volcano
3. magma flows frm magma chamber to pipe to vent
4. composite volcano may have a secondary cone
Active: erupts frequently & in recent times
Dormant: not erupted recently but not extinct
Extinct: does not erupt anymore
Formation: magma rises up fractures in rocks; pressure is reduced when it moves upwards: allows gases to expand & volcanic material to be ejected
-volcanic material piles up arnd vent, forms volcano
Gases: steam, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide
Solids: ash, dust, volcanic bombs, cinder (pyroclasts)
types: 1. ash & cinder volcano: steep sided, gentle base symmetrical; formed frm hot ash & red hot cinders; bowl shaped summit crater
2. basic lava volcano(shield):wide base gentle slopes
Hot spot volcanoes: mauna loa in Hawaii
-far away frm plate boundary
Basaltic magma issues thru a vent to form volcano
-plate moves, chain of volcanic islands formed
3. lava dome: acid lava too viscous & solidifies ovr vent to form a bulbous structure. Sides become steep and dome shaped when lava fills up the interior
4. volcanic plug: viscous acid lava solidified in central pipe and forms a spine or volcanic plug
5. composite volcano: alternate layers of pyroclasts & viscous acid lava; steeper towards top, gentler at base – composite cones formed when lava flows out of secondary pipes
6. minor features associated with vulcanicity
a. volcanic hot spring
b. geyser: violent ejection of hot water
problems: 1. massive destruction: of lives & property; interrupt communication; gases (CO2) suffocate ppl
2. tsunamis: eruptions near coast create huge waves
3. pollution: damage respiratory systems; contaminate water sources
4. steam affects rain; sulphur affects ozone layer
Benefits: 1. weathered volcanic materials make good fertile soil with necessary minerals for cultivation
2. precious stones & minerals: mining
3. tourism: hot springs resorts, attractions
4. geothermal energy (heat below earth’s surface): produce electricity, warm houses

Earthquakes: occurs when energy built up in earth’s crust is suddenly released
-occurs when convergent movement is not smooth
-stress in rocks so great that causes the ground to vibrate when the rocks jerk free
1. focus: source of earthquake
2. epicentre: point on surface directly above focus
3. seismic waves: measured by seismograph
4. Richter scale0-9: measure amt of energy released
Problems: 1. destroy buildings & roads : toppled over, hinders rescue work
2. disrupts water, gas & electricity supplies & communication: burst pipes, broken telephone lines; fires formed, diseases rampant -water contaminated
3. causes landslides & tsunamis
Factors affecting extent of damage: 1. magnitude
2. depth of focus: shallow focus, large extent
3. epicentre: nearer, larger damage; more solid rock epicentre, less damage
4. constructions: dense built up buildings, more damage; flimsy old building cannot withstand
5. forecast: prediction & preparation help
6. tsunamis: no tsunami, less damage
Ways to reduce damage: 1. location, design & materials of buildings: don’t build on active fault zone;unstable soil, use shock absorbing rubber blocks
2. limit outbreak of fires: use fireproof materials
3. conduct drills; preparation: familiarise people with emergency procedures; have enough supplies
4. prediction & warning systems

Equatorial climate: btwn 10oN &10oS
1.temperature: high, abt 27oC; small range of 3oC
-due to angle of incidence and thick cloud cover
2. humidity: high, thick cloud cover
3. rainfall: high, 2000mm/yr, no distinct dry season

Tropical rainforest
1. dense & luxuriant vegetation, multiple species: hot and wet climate encourages rapid plant growth
a. emergent layer >30m: struggle for light, buttress roots for supporting heavy weight of trees
b. canopy layer 20-30m: crowns form continuous canopy, prevents sunlight from reaching forest floor
c. understorey layer 5-15m: narrow crowns (oval)
d. shrub layer: shrubs, ferns and small young trees
e. undergrowth layer: sparse as little sunlight reaches the forest floor due to canopy; mostly small plants, ferns & saprophytes that live on dead organic matter à fast decomposition, little leaf litter
2. evergreen tress: climate allows continuous growth
3. smooth and waxy thick leathery leaves with pointing drip tips: allow rain to run off easily; withstand the heat (high rainfall & temperature)
4. thin barks: no need for protection frm cold
5. branches found on top one third of tree: to obtain maximum sunlight for photosynthesis
6. shallow roots: absorb water and nutrients quickly
-high rainfall and decomposition rate

Mangrove forest: near the tropics- peninsular m’sia
Climate: salty & brackish water; muddy, water logged soil with little oxygen
1. specialised roots to breathe in air during low tide
a. bruguiera zone (furthest frm sea): knee like roots
b. rhizophora zone: prop roots to anchor in mud
c. avicennia/sonneratia zone: pencil like roots
2. broad leathery leaves with drip tips: allow rain to flow off quickly; reduce excessive transpiration
3. special salt glands: excrete excess salt (eg. frm excessive transpiration) or store salt in old leaves

Tropical monsoon climate: 10oN-25oN, 10oS-25oS
temperature: larger annual range 5o-17o; 30oC or higher in hot season, <20o-24oC in cooler months
rainfall: distinct dry season; >2000mm/yr

Tropical monsoon forest
1. not as dense as & has fewer species than tropical rainforest: due to lower rainfall & harsher conditions
a. canopy layer 25-30m: no continuous canopy
b. understorey layer abt 15m
c. ground layer: dense with thick shrubs and herbs
-due to sunlight reaching forest floor
2. deciduous trees: shed leaves during a particular period annually to reduce loss of water through transpiration (seasonal rainfall)
3. waxy broad thick leaves with leathery texture: to withstand heat & remove water during rainy season
4. thick and coarse bark: adapt to dry conditions
5. branches not as high: less struggle for sunlight
6. deep roots: get water during dry season

Temperate deciduous forest: 40oN-60oN & south
Climate: rainfall: 600-1000mm; cool summers & mild winters; 6-8 growing months
1. less dense & fewer species than tropical rainforest
a. canopy layer~30m: oak, elm, ash, beech, chestnut
b. sub canopy: young saplings, shrubs, short trees
c. shrub layer: non woody plants that grow rapidly during warmer months when there is more sunlight
d. ground layer: mosses & lichens
2. deciduous: shed leaves in autumn to conserve energy and stop growth in winter
3. broad leaves: trap as much sunlight as possible
4. thick bark: protection in winter
5. deep roots: obtain nutrients & water when top surface of water is frozen
6. cell sap increase in winter: increased concentration gradient, can absorb more water through osmosis

Coniferous forest: 60oN-70oN ,also found on high mountains at lower latitudes
Climate: long cold winters (oct-apr), short & cool summers; brief growing season; temp can fall to -30oC or less; low annual precipitation (mostly snow)
1a. few species: larch, fir, pine, spruce (softwoods)
b. uniform height: 20-25m, large trees 40m
c. little undergrowth: mosses & lichens
-due to poor soil and insufficient sunlight
2. evergreen: photosynthesise as soon as conditions allow (>6oC), grow in spring when sun melts snow
3. needle like small leaves with thick cuticles: reduce transpiration in strong winds
4. thick barks: protection against extreme cold
5. long roots for anchorage; shallow roots as cold boulder soil does not allow deep root growth
6. cone shaped trees with downward sloping branches: allow snow to slide off w/o breaking
7. cones protect seeds during very cold winters

:))) - lala

Temperature: degree of heat or cold
Factors affecting temperature:
1. altitude: normal lapse rate 6.4oC per 1000m
2. latitude: angle of incidence
3. aspect: affects temperature regions
4. land surface: vegetation cooler than concrete
5. ocean currents: N Alantic drift warm oyashio cold
6. distance from sea: maritime/continental influence
7. humidity: high>more cloud cover
Instrument: Six’s thermometer
U bend – mercury
Upper limbs – alcohol
Right bulb with vacuum

Humidity: state of atmosphere(water vapour content)
Depends on temperature: warmer air holds more
Saturated: holds max amt at a particular temp
Relative humidity: percentage of amt it holds against total amt it can hold
Instrument: hygrometer (wet + dry bulb thermometer)
Wet: wrapped w muslin kept moist w distilled water
Wet bulb depression: more w less humidity

Stevenson screen hygrometer, six’s thermometer
painted white
more than 1m above ground
wooden
louvered sides
sited in open area with short grass

Rainfall
1. convectional: accompanied by lightning & thunder
-high humidity & temp, tropical areas, temperature regions in summer
-heat from ground warms up air which rises
-heavy rain, short period, falls in afternoon
2. relief: moist onshore air forced upwards
-windward & leeward sides
3. frontal: when 2 masses of air with different masses, temperatures and densities meet
a. cold front: cold air slips under warm air
-warm air forced upwards
-heavy rain, short period, small area
b. warm front: warm air rises gently
-gentle rain, long period, wide area
Instrument: rain gauge: outer & inner copper casing, glass bottle, funnel with tapering end
1. open area: rain can enter from any angle, prevent dripping, blockage of opening by leaves
2. sunk into grassy ground (one third below ground): cooler, prevent toppling & splashing
_read evry 12h in mm, poured in measuring cylinder
_small opening to minimise evaporation

Anemometer: 3 or 4 cups joined to the ends of metal rods fixed to a spindle
-sited 10m above ground in open area
Wind vane: freely moving pointer on a vertical shaft
-shows direction which the wind is blowing from
-sited 10m above ground away from obstruction

Air pressure: air pressure higher nearer ground & decreases with height
warm air expands, rises,results in low pressure below
cold air sinks, exerts high pressure below it
Instrument: barometer (aneroid)
Metal box that is a partial vacuum, flexible corrugated top that moves according to change in pressure. The pressure is read off a calibrated dial

Planetary pressure system
1. doldrums(equatorial low pressure belt) 5oN to 5oS
-caused by high temperatures (warmed air rises)
2. sub-tropical high (horse latitudes) 30oN and 30oS
-air frm doldrums move up and cools, sinks
3. sub-polar low pressure belts 60oN and 60oS
-polar & sub-tropical winds converge, forced to rise
4. polar high pressure belts 90oN and 90oS
-due to low temperatures (cooled air sinks)

Planetary wind system Coriolis effect: deflection
Winds move frm high pressure to low pressure areas
-deflected to right in northern hemisphere
-deflected to left in southern hemisphere
1. trade winds: blow from sub-tropical to doldrums
North hemi: deflected to right, north-east trades
South hemi: deflected to left, south-east trades
intertropical convergence zone: converge at equator
2. westerlies: blow frm sub tropical to sub polar
North hemi: deflected to right, south westerlies
South hemi: deflected to left, north westerlies
3. easterlies: blow frm polar to sub polar
North hemi: deflected to right, north easterlies
South hemi: deflected to left, south easterlies

Sea and land breezes: small scale local winds
-due to diff rates of heating up and cooling down
Day: land hotter, lower pressure, sea breeze to land
Ngt: land cooler, higher pressure, land breeze to sea
Monsoons: large scale seasonal winds
-due to diff rates of the large land masses
End & beginning of yr: sun overhead near tropic of Capricorn; north hemi have winter, south hemi have summer; winds arrive in north china & japan as north west monsoon and as north east monsoon in south china n SEA; wind deflected to left in south hemi, arrive in australia & indonesia as north west monsoon
Middle of yr: sun overhead near tropic of cancer; north hemi have summer, south hemi have winter; wind deflected to right in north hemi, arrives in SEA as south west monsoon, south east monsoon in japan & north china, south west in india

yay! undetailedness :))) - lala

+meeting the needs of a young nation
_rapidly growing population
_not enough schools and places for every child
>schools were built to meet the demand

+building national loyalty
_english medium schools were not popular as the people had the freedom to choose the language of instruction
_pupils of different races seldom met
_could not achieve national loyalty and social cohesion
_difficulties to nation building
>implemented daily flag raising and pledge taking ceremony

+fostering social cohesion
_to show that the government was fair to all races
>textbooks loaned to needy pupils from all language streams
>all government schools provided with same physical facilities
>all pri sch pupils sit for common exam (PSLE)
_encouraged interaction between pupils and teachers of different language streams
_promote racial harmony
>integrated school system – same class held in different languages
_bilingualism made compulsory (1966)
>english as link language – break down social barriers, build more harmonious society
>mother tongue to impart moral values and cultural traditions of each race
_emphasised on uniformed groups ECA/CCA such as National (Police) Cadet Corps
>provided pupils with opportunities for interaction and healthy competition
>instilled loyalty
>bring pupils of different race together

+preparing for economic development
_serious unemployment in 1960s due to declining entrepot trade
>moved to manufacturing
_technical education and new courses introduced to schools (1969), more technical schools were set up
>provide young workforce with relevant skills to meet the needs of the changing economy

+improving the quality of education
_bilingual policy ineffective
_education system failed to consider different learning needs of different pupils

+streaming
_introduced to cater to the different abilities and learning paces of pupils
>channelled to different streams according to performance in languages and mathematics
>GEP to provide more challenging education
>N(T) to provide technically orientated curriculum

+teaching moral values
_introduce Moral Education programme
>to inculcate in pupils a common set of desirable moral values such a s social responsibility and loyalty to the country
_introduce Religious Knowledge (1982)
>reinforce values taught in moral education
_made not compulsory (1990)
>it encouraged conversion of the religious beliefs taught even though the government should be neutral and not promote religions in schools
_replaced by Civics and Moral Education (1992)
>captures essence of being a Singaporean
>preserves cultural heritage of the communities
>Shared Values help to develop Singaporean identity - includes elements of Singapore’s cultures and the attitudes and values that have helped her survival and success as a nation

+encouraging creativity
_global recession(1981) slowed down international trade and Singapore’s high economic growth
>Singaporeans had to be creative and innovative to adapt to and initiate changes that would revive the economy and stimulate economic growth

_schools given more freedom
>autonomous and independent schools
- freedom to cater to specific needs

+preparing for the challenges of the 21st century
_have to be resourceful and self reliant to thrive in competitive global economy

+promoting critical and creative thinking
_project work to encourage pupils to think creatively and critically

+using information technology (IT)
_use of IT in teaching and learning in schools

+introducing National Education (1997)
_celebrations of events such as Racial Harmony and Total Defence Day
>understand how Singapore survived difficult times
>foster strong bonds, more emotionally attached
_Community Involvement Programme (1998)
>nurture pupils into good citizens conscious of their responsibility to family, society and country

+developing talents
>school programmes to cater to pupils’ diverse talents
>provide them with opportunities

+compulsory primary school education (2003)
_emphasis on life long learning
>each child will have at least a common core of knowledge and skills to prepare them for employment
_achieve national identity and social cohesion

LOOKING BACK
education policies reviewed constantly to develop potential of each citizen/student fully

hahaha so undetailed :) -lala

EXCRETION

metabolism = anabolism + catabolism

anabolism -> formation of complex substances from simpler substances
catabolism -> breaking down of complex substances into simpler substances

end product of metabolism -> useless, potentially harmful substances
examples:
CO2
H2O
salts
Nitrogenous wastes
- urea (terrestial animals)
- uric acid (reptiles and birds)
- ammonia (aquatic animals)

excretion -> removal of metabolic waste products from the body (=/= defecation)
__________________________

KIDNEY
excretory organ to remove
- urea
- excess water
- excess salt
- toxic, useless materials (potentially harmful)

Renal Artery
alot of urea
excess water and salts
higher level of glucose, aminos and O2
lower level of CO2

Renal Vein
less urea
normal amount of water and salts
lower level of glucose, aminos and O2 (kidney used for respiration, growth etc)
higher level of CO2 (kidney respire)

Nephron
small independet filtering unit
~3cm long
about 1 million in the kidney


this is the kidney. dont worry the real one looks nicer and more happening
---------------------------

blood in renal artery -> arterioles -> capillaries in bowman's capsule

decrease in lumen size
increase in pressure to push substances out

capillaries - cells that are partially permeable
->small molucules filtered out (ultrafiltration) e.g urea water salt glucose amino acids vitamins

-------------------------

at the bowman's capsule, all the small molecules are filtered out from the arterioles

due to a high concentration of glucose, amino acids, vitamins in the nephron
- diffusion and osmosis

after some time... there would be a high concentration in the blood, thus active transports would be used to keep those substances in the blood.
-------
water is absorped back into the blood at the Loop of Henle
- animals adapted to desert climates have longer loop of henle

nephron!

BACTERIA!
-Bacteria are prokaryotes
-one-celled
-circular DNA/RNA not enclosed in nucleus since they don't have one
-70s ribosomes
-no membrane bound organelles
-some have flagella
-many may have slime capsule
-eg: Escherichia coli!

some general things about bacteria
1) they are 1-10micrometres in size
2) different types of bacteria: Eubacteria, Cyanobacteria, Archaebacteria
3) there are different shapes of bacteria: rod, coccus, spiral
4) they can reproduce by binary fission, conjugation and spore formation

some useful things about bacteria
1) food production --> cheese and yoghurt
2) symbiosis: E. coli in intestines, nitrogen-fixing bacteria in plants
3) oil eating bacteria for your oil spills in the ocean
4) nutrient flow
5) genetic engineering --> Agrobacterium tumefaciens used in gene transfer

some harmful things about bacteria
Pathogenic, causes diseases like:
1) Syphillis and gonorrhoea (ooh stds!)
2) Food poisoning by things like Salmonella sp
3) Typhoid Fever

VIRUS!
-Size: 20-400nanometres
-DNA/RNA surrounded by capsid (capsomeres as subunits)
-Eg. Foot-mouth, tobacco mosiac virus, bacteriophage
-Specific in action: chicken virus won't affect plants. dots.
-Pathogenic: AIDS
-Can be used in Gene theraphy
-Doesn't feed
-Needs a host to hijack and live in
-Cannot move on its own

How does an influenza virus reproduce?
1) Virus enters host
2) Virus uncoats and releases its DNA/RNA
3) Virus hijacks host and uses the host's machinery to produce more virus DNA/RNA
4) Virus breaks out of host

FUNGI!
-Made of Hyphae (microscopic thread)
-Cell wall may contain chitin or cellulose or both
-Older ones have vacuoles
-Has a cytoplasm
-Reproduce by spores
-Saprotrophic: lives on dead organic matter and secrete enzymes. E.G. Cellulase
-Parasitic: eats into host E.G. mildew
-Multicellular

Examples of Fungi:
1) Penicillium species:
-P. notatum: Penicillin production
-P. camemberti, P. roqueforti: production of cheese
-P. griseofulvin: antibiotic against fungal skin

2) Yeast
-Unlike a normal fungus, it reproduces by budding
-It is also unicellular
-No hyphae
-However, it is considered a fungi becasue:
1) It is saprotrophic
2) It has a cell wall of cellulose and chitin
3) It has a nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane (so not bacetria)
4) But it has no chloroplast (...and not a plant)

More later because I really cannot tahan staring at my notes anymore. I'm going to off to make sure I don't vomit. Yay. -ziwei. again.

ENZYMES
- It is a protein in nature and it speeds up rate of reaction (catalyse chemical reactions) [because it lowers activation energy]
- Required in small amounts – Not changed at the end of the reaction
- Specific in action (e.g. Lock and Key hypothesis, Induced Fit hypothesis)
- Sensitive to temperature
- Sensitive to pH
- Some need co-enzymes (come from Vitamin B)

Enzymes are important because:
1. Chemical reactions vital to life will not take place quickly enough without enzymes
2. Enzymes can control where and when the various chemical reactions take place

Types of enzymes:
1 Hydrolases
2 Oxidation-reduction (dehydrogenase)

HYDROLASES
-Carbohydrases act on carbohydrates
-Lipases act on fats
-Proteases act on proteins
-Catalase breaks down H2O2(hydrogen peroxide, poisonous) to H2O and O2

Carbohydrases:
a) Amylase (e.g. pytalin in saliva) breaks down starch into maltose
b) Maltase (in small intestine) breaks down maltose into glucose

Lipases:
They break down fats/lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.

Proteases:
a) Pepsin breaks down proteins into polypeptides
b) Peptidase breaks down polypeptides into amino acids

How do enzymes work?
Lock and Key hypothesis (1890)
- Specificity
- Destruction by heat
- Inactivation by poisons

Induced Fit hypothesis (1959)

Substrate: A substance on which enzymes act on

Coenzyme: A compound required by an enzyme before they can catalyse a reaction

Optimum Temperature/pH: The temperature or pH at which the enzyme works best

Limiting factor: Any factor that directly affects a process if its quantity is changed

Effects of temperature:
à There is an optimum temperature for every enzyme
à An enzyme is generally inactive at low temperatures
à Every 10˚C brings about twice the activity
à When the temperature is too high:
- Enzyme structure affected
- Protein denatured
- Enzyme denatured

Types of enzyme inhibitors:
Reversible inhibitors: bind less tightly to enzymes
Irreversible inhibitors: bind tightly to enzymes
Competitive inhibitors: bind to active site
Non-competitive inhibitors: bind to other site (not active site), change the shape of/block access to active site (e.g. cyanide poison)

OXIDATION-REDUCTION enzymes
- For respiration

-- HH! ((: I DON'T UNDERSTAND HAHAHAHA.

BIOTECHNOLOGY! (our favourite!)

Definition:
Biotechnology is the use of living organisms and their products for the modification human health or human environment.

ANCIENT

Bread-making
* makes use of floor and yeast
* the enzyme amylase converts starch to sugar
* due to lack of oxygen, yeast respires anaerobically and converts the sugar to carbon dioxide and alcohol
* the carbon dioxide causes the bread to rise while the alcohol is driven off by baking, but also contributes to the unique taste of bread

Wine-making
* makes use of yeast and sugar (from grapes or barley or etc)
* yeast respires anaerobically to convert the sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide
* Japanese sake produced from fermentation of rice

Yoghurt
*makes use of bacteria
*ferment milk with lactobacillus bulgaricus and streptococcus thermophilus
*streptococcus removes the oxygen, causing anaerobic respiration
*lactobacillus then converts the lactose to lactic acid
*lactic acid causes milk protein to curdle. and taada. you have yoghurt. whoop dee.

Cheese
*makes use of bacteria and fungi
*ferment milk with ... WELL IT'S THE SAME THING AS YOGHURT ACTUALLY.
*but then after you get the nice curdled milk proteins...
*the curdled milk proteins together with the fats in milk are removed and acted upon by a mixture of bacteria and fungi.
*different bacteria and fungi give you different cheese
*mm-mmm.

NON-ANCIENT! aka... er... modern?

Single-cell protein

*use of microorganisms to provide food for animals
--> Why use it? well. because...
1) there's a whole variety of substrates for you to exploit at a low commerical cost
2) rapid growth of microorganisms
3) high protein content. mm. how nutritious
4) easily manipultaed
5) there's the technology for it

--> Why people don't eat it?
1) tasteless. people aren't very willing to eat tasteless bacteria-made food. I mean. How would you like it if you knew that your food was synthetically made with tiny little invisible-to-the-eye microorganisms?
2) risk of contamination. gaspes.
3) it's very hard to keep it in a nice and sterile condition

--> Some very nice examples:
1) Cheese making produces whey( a mixture of protein and lactose) as waste product. with a bit of tweaking here and there by yeast, it can be converted into high-grade proteins and vitamins. Yum yum. They are then used to feed cattle.
2) In oil distillation, there is a waxy substance produced as waste product. Yeast is used to act on it and its... converted to animal feed. Erm. Say ewww??

Bovine somatotrophin using recomibanant gene technique
The hormone BST can be used to induce cows to give more milk. In short, the BST gene is inserted into E. Coli, E. Coli is cloned, E. Coli produces a great quantity of BST, BST is extracted, BST is injected into cow, Cow makes more milk. Moo.

However, there are of course very bad problems with using it:
1) There may be a mastitis infection in cow's udder. And the cow will be more suceptible to diseases.
2) Cow's immunity system weakened
3) Consumer may have increased BST as there may be residue of the hormone in the milk. As they drink it, the hormone will then accumulate.
4) Cows need to eat more
5) There is not such a great demand for milk in the west

Biosensors
Biosensors are sensors which contain a biological component e.g. antibody or enzyme.

Examples:
-Using the enzyme glucose oxidase to check glucose level in blood
-Check contamination level in food by using biosensors to detect microorganisms

Production of Penicillin

-Made using a closed fermenter
-26 degrees celsius + pH 5/6 + sterile air + nutrient broth (lactose) + penicillium
-as the growth of the fungi slows down, Penicillin is formed
-nutrient broth with penicillin is extracted via crystallisation

Which brings us to ...FERMENTERS. (:!
(hahahahahahaha. ziwei is now going crazy.)

Aqueous fermentation is when the fermention is of a substrate that has high water content. This is done using fermenters!

Closed/batch fermenter
- The batch germenter is a closed fermenter. The substrate is put into the nutrient broth and then left there to ferment. During the fermentation, nothing is put in or taken away, except the venting of waste gases.
-During a closed fermentation, environmental factors are constantly changing although temperate is controlled. Expotential growth only lasts for a short period of time.

Advantages
1) The vessel is versatile, so it can be used for different processes at different times, allowing the manufacturer to meet the market's demands.
2) It is easy to set up and control the environmental factors.
3) If a culture is contaminated, only one batch will be lost, minimizing the manufacturer's costs.

Open/continuous fermenter
-In a continuous fermenter, nutrients are continually being added to balance the ones that are used up. Thus, expotential growth lasts for a longer period of time.
-It is important for the environmental factors to be constant, namely pH, oxygen level, concentration of nutrients and accumulation of products.

Advantages
1) a smaller vessel is needed since the production is more productive, what with the microorganisms being in constant expotential growth
2) it can give greater production --> more cash for the manufacturer

Disadvantages
1) it is very difficult to keep all the environmental factors constant, and the system might be unbalanced. in the case that the continuous fermenter breaks down, there will be a lot of waste and thus a lot of money lost.
2) practical problems might pop up, such as foaming, clumping of cells and microbial growth blocking the inlets

Parts of a fermenter
-Cylindrical tank to... hold the nutrient broth and substrates
-Inlets for air to enter, and outlets for waste air to be vented out
-pH probe: makes sure that production is at optimum pH as enzymes are protein in nature and thus sensitive to the acidity and alkalinity
-temperature probe: makes sure that production is at optimum temperature. Too cold: enzymes inactive. Too hot: enzyme structure changes, enzymes denatured.
-aeration system (stirrer and sparger): introduction of air so that the microorganisms can respire, and to expose the substrates to more nutrient medium.
-water jacket: for temperature control
-inlet for acid/alkali: for pH control

...did I miss out anything?! *PANIC* -ziwei

There are 4 types of movement, namely diffusion, osmosis, active transport and facilitated diffusion.

Diffusion is the process where molecules of a substance move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration (until there is equilibrium). For example, the movement of oxygen from lungs to bloodstream and absorption of nutrients from small intestine into bloodstream etc. When there is no net movement, equilibrium is achieved.

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion:
1. Amount of substances on either side (i.e. the concentration)
2. Permeability of membrane
3. Temperature (movement of particles, increased temperature usually increases the speed of the particles, according to the kinetic theory of collision)
4. Distance to be travelled
5. Size of the particles

OSMOSIS is the process by which a passage of water (solvent) from a dilute solution (more water molecules) “moves” to a more concentrated solution (less water molecules) across a selectively permeable membrane. For example: diffusion of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane (partially membrane)

OSMOTIC PRESSURE: Pressure exerted on 1 side of the membrane is more, water molecules (solvent) passes in that direction

Water potential: It describes the movement of water molecules and is a measure of the tendency for water to move from one place to another.

Three types of solutions:
1) Hypotonic (dilute): HIGH water potential
2) Isotonic
3) Hypertonic: LOW water potential


Plasmolysis:
It is the shrinkage of the cytoplasm and cell membrane away from the cell wall.

A plant cell in hypotonic solution:
- Cell size volume decreases
- Vacuole size decreases
- Plasmolysis occurs

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
à It is the process by which molecules of a substance move from areas of lower concentration of that substance to areas of higher concentration
à Against a concentration gradient
à For example: Absorption of mineral salts by the root hair cells, absorption of glucose and amino acids by cells in the small intestine of humans

FACILITATED DIFFUSION
à It is the movement of particles across a membrane with the help of a molecule in the membrane (globular protein in bilayer of cell membrane).
à The energy comes from the kinetic energy of the molecules involved.
à For example, the movement of ADP into mitochrondria
à MOVEMENT BY BULK via movements of vesicles

Entocytosis:
- Substances are being imported into cells via vesicles
- Phagocytosis = cell eating
- Pinocytosis = bulk transportation of liquid (when taking in of nutrients)

Exocytosis:
- Substances being exported out of cells

Surface Area: Volume Ratio
- Ratio of SA:Vol. ratio in a small organism is greater than in a large organism
- Smaller organisms have the advantage of a relatively large absorbing surface
- Larger organisms have a low SA:Vol. ratio, their skin not very permeable to gases
- Thus large organisms need special systems (e.g. circulatory systems) to help them transport the substances and special absorbing substances such as lungs or gills to increase the surface area for absorption
- The ratio decreases with increasing size of the organism

There's a comparison table, but I don't know how to put it up here. Why not do it YOURSELF? Take it as revision. (: It should be a 5 x 5 table. Compare conc. gradient, type of particles, cell membrane and energy of the 4 different movements in your table. (:

-- HH! ((:

~Countries divided~

Sri Lanka: A Divided Island

Three major races: Sinhalese, Tamils, Moors
>> Largest group: Sinhalese à Buddhist, speak Sinhala
>> 2nd largest group: Tamils à Hindus, speak Tamil language

Indian Tamils heavily concentrated in the highland districts (tea plantation workers)
Sri Lankan Tamils make up more than 95% of population in Jaffna Peninsula, 70% in Batticaloa District, large minorities in northern and eastern provinces
Sinhalese found in large numbers everywhere except in Jaffna and Batticaloa districts.
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WHY ARE THE SINHALESE AND TAMILS IN CONFLICT?

Citizenship rights
o In 1948, Sri Lanka granted citizenship only to those who were either born in Sri Lanka or those whose fathers and grandfathers were also born there

o Indian Tamils who were brought from India to Sri Lanka (by the British) to work in tea plantations became stateless, not citizens of any country. They were thus denied basic rights like voting.

o In 1964, India helped these people by holding discussions with Sri Lanka to allow a certain no. of Indian Tamils to return to India, while the rest were to be granted Sri Lankan citizenship.

o However till the late 1980s, this agreement was not carried out in full by Sri Lanka. (100,000 Tamils still stateless)
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Jobs In The Government Service

o When under the British rule, the English-educated Tamils could enter the government service and be promoted. They had the most powerful jobs although they were a minority in the country. The Sinhalese, though the majority, were disadvantaged as they could not read & write English well.

o With independence, the Sri Lankan government decided to improve the position of the Sinhalese by making Sinhala the only language of administration in 1956 (under Official Language Act). Tamils in the government service were given 3 years to learn Sinhala or be dismissed, which upset them as they could not secure jobs or be promoted. A peaceful demonstration against the Official Language Act was disrupted by Sinhala supporters, thus resulting in rioting, causing over a hundred deaths.
o At the end of 1957 July, Bandaranaike (Sri Lankan Prime Minister) signed a pact with Tamil leader Chelvanayakam to make Tamil the language of a national minority and to allow its use as a language of administration, but only in northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka (where majority are Tamils)
o However this was met with strong protests from Sinhalese. Agreement withdrawn in 1958. Next few months: tension increased. Fighting, many died & many homeless.
o 1978: Sri Lankan Constitution granted a greater measure of recognition to the Tamil Language and made it the language of administration where the majority were Tamils. English was encouraged to be taught in schools as a link language to facilitate communication among the different racial groups.
o Tamil accepted as official language since 1987 but still not widely used.

University Admission
o Before 1970: admission based on merit, examinations in English. Equal no. of Tamil and Sinhalese students in more respected courses (medical, engineering). However the Sinhalese were unhappy that the no. of Sinhalese students in these courses was not proportionate to the nos. in the country.
o From 1970 onwards: Education policies made it compulsory for Tamil students to score higher marks than the Sinhalese students to enter the same courses.
o Next 4 yrs: other schemes of university admission which made it more difficult for Tamil youths to enter. Percentage of Tamil students admitted to engineering fell, more Sinhalese youths able to enter.

Resettlement of Population
o Resettling of poor Sinhalese peasants cause resentment among Tamils. (transferred from densely-populated south-western and central areas into Tamil areas)
o Implemented to provide land for the landless Sinhalese peasants to live on and to cultivate padi. Tamils unhappy because the Sinhalese peasants were not the only ones who moved there. Buddhist monks and Sri Lankan army (mostly Sinhalese) also came.

WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE SINHALESE-TAMIL CONFLICT?
Armed Conflict
o Tamils felt like second-class citizens because of these policies and tried to voice their unhappiness. At first they made peaceful demands.
v E.g. Early 1950s: Federal Party (Tamil political party) asked that the Tamil areas be recognised as a federation within the country. Did not ask for separate state then and didn’t use violence in its demands
o 1976: demands of Tamils not met, a new political party called the Tamil United Liberation Front emerged. Asked for a separate independent state (called Tamil Eelam). Members of the party believed that only separation from Sri Lanka would ensure the rights of the Tamils.
o Sri Lankan govt rejected the idea. Tamil youths, angry and dissatisfied, formed a militant group, the Liberation Tiger of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and resorted to violence. Known more popularly as Tamil Tigers, they were considered terrorists.
o Started attacking Tamil members of the police force, Tamil members and supporters of the ruling party, and Tamil politicians who didn’t support the proposed separate state. Soon started attacking the Sinhalese
o Sinhalese had also showed their hostility towards the Tamils, sometimes through violence. First anti-Tamil riot occurred in 1956 as a response to the Tamils’ peaceful protest against the ‘Sinhalese Only’ language policy. Hundreds of Tamils dead and lost their property worth millions of dollars). Tamils forced to flee for their lives. Unfortunately, these anti-Tamil riots were encouraged by Sinhalese security forces such as the Sinhalese-dominated army. 1983 riots: 1000s of Tamils fled to Tamil Nadu in South India, Indian govt forced to intervene.
o Often, children grow up with the prejudices of their racial or religious group and remain hostile to another group throughout their lives.

Unemployment
o In riots and armed struggles, many people are killed (usually breadwinners of families)
o Riots in 1983: massive unemployment (1000s of factory worker, self-employed persons and plantation workers lost their jobs
o Large no. of the jobless people were Sinhalese who took part in the vandalising, looting and burning their places of work such as garment factories. Thus in a conflict between groups, all parties suffer.

Loss of Investments From Other Countries
o Time of instability, investors from other countries may not have the confidence to invest
o Investments from other countries dropped from US$66 million in 1982 to US$39 million in 1983 and further to US$22 million in 1986.

Fall in Number of Tourists
o Tourism, one of Sri Lanka’s major income earners, was seriously damaged by the violent internal conflict. Tourist arrivals steadily decreased after the July 1983 riots, which resulted in a loss of jobs and fall in earnings, which affected the economy.
o Less funds to develop amenities and facilities (e.g. transport and housing)

Foreign Intervention
o Conflict in a country might attract the attention of another country, which may offer to play the role of a mediator or interfere directly by sending troops in to resolve the conflict.
o Attracted attention of India, which at first tried to be a mediator (July 1983 riots) by sending its Foreign Minister to Sri Lanka to mediate in a dialogue between the Sinhalese and the Tamils. The dialogue failed as the parties involved could not come to an agreement
o 3 June 1987: the Indian govt sent a flotilla of 20 Indian ships to Jaffna to send food and petroleum products to the Sri Lankan Tamils but was turned back by the Sri Lankan army. So the Indian Air Force dropped food and medical supplies in Jaffna the following day and violated the Sri Lankan airspace
o July 1987: Sri Lanka agreed to sign a peace accord with India (under pressure from India). Was to be truce between Tamil Tigers and Sri Lankan forces. Tamil Tigers were to surrender their arms to the Indian peacekeeping troops, and the accord called for the merging of the Tamil-dominated northern provinces with the eastern provinces.
o October 1987: Tigers failed to fully surrender weapons, Indian troops took control of the Tiger-controlled Jaffna by force. From Oct 1987 to Dec 1988, most of the clashes in the north and east of Sri Lanka were between the Indian peacekeeping force and the Tamil Tigers
o Peacekeeping force withdrawn in March 1990

AFTERMATH
Tension and hostilities still exist. Sept 2002: peace talks began in Thailand between the Sri Lankan Government and Tamil Tigers.

Northern Ireland: A Troubled Land
Protestants and Catholics fighting each other over religious and political differences
2 political entities: UK and Republic of Ireland. UK: England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland. Britain: Scotland, Wales and England
Before 12th century: Northern Ireland and Republic of Ireland were one country (Ireland)
In 12th century: Ireland conquered and colonised by England. 1690: King James II (England, Catholic) forced to flee to the north of Ireland when he failed to force the Catholic religion on the Protestants in England. In Northern Ireland, he tried to defeat the local Protestants with his army. New King of England, William of Orange (Protestant) arrived there and defeated King James. Battle was known as Battle of Boyne; King William remains a hero of the Protestants.
English rule of Ireland in 17th century: English landlords in Ireland brought in Protestant Scottish and English settlers to increase the Protestant population. Newcomers mostly settled in Northern Ireland, pushing out many lock Irish Catholic farmer. Thus, Northern Ireland became predominantly Protestant
Irish fought against Scottish and English settlers without success, many live lost. 1800: Ireland became part of UK, but hostilities between the local Catholics and Protestants continued. Late 1800s: some local Irish demanded Home Rule, fighting often broke out.
1921: Ireland divided into 2 separate parts, based on majority religion of each part. Northernàlargely Protestant, remained part of UK. Southern IrelandàLargely Catholic, known as Irish Free State
Both Northern Ireland and Irish Free State had their own Parliament, but continued to recognise English monarchy and laws regarding foreign affairs. 1949: Irish Free State cut ties with Britain, became Republic of Ireland
1993 Northern Ireland: 1 million Protestants (mostly Scottish and English origin), 600000 Catholics (mostly descendants of local Irish inhabitants)
Before 1972: Northern Ireland had its own parliament at Stormont Castle near Belfast. Since 1972: ruled directly by British parliament in London, PM of Britain chooses Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland govt in charge of internal affairs (health, finance, commerce, educatn), foreign affairs in the hands of Britain. Majority of ministers in Northern Ireland are Protestants.

THE PROTESTANT-CATHOLIC TENSION
Divided Loyalties
o Most Protestants regard themselves as British, wish to see the country continue as part of UK, afraid of union with Rep of Ireland (Catholic), since Catholic government would not be tolerant of their Protestant beliefs
o Catholics in Northern Ireland see themselves as Irish, would like their country to be reunited with Ireland. Also resent the past history of English conquest where Catholics were either massacred or treated harshly, remembered long struggle for Home Rule
o Protestants still celebrate anniversary of Battle of Boyne as a mark of Protestant dominance. Usually march through Catholic residential areas. Sense of loyalty to diff countries makes the Protestants and Catholics intolerant of each other.

The Education System
o In Northern Ireland today, there are public schools that cater for Protestants only and private schools that cater for Catholics only, schools for Catholics partly funded by govt
o Protestant children learn British history, play British sports (rugby, hockey, cricket), very loyal to Britain. Catholic children learn Irish history, take up Irish sports (hurling), are taught Irish language and culture à tend to regard Britain as foreign country
o There are mixed schools to cater for both Protestants and Catholics, set up by private individuals. But they are not as popular as the schools which cater to just one religious group. Thus Protestant and Catholic children rarely get to meet and know each other à generations of children grow up to be distrustful of each other and this makes them even more hostile to each other

Employment
o Competition for jobs à Catholics feel that though they are academically qualified as Protestants, they do not have the same opportunity in getting the jobs that they want
o 1971: population survey revealed that Catholic males were two-and-a-half times more likely to be jobless than Protestant males. Also, no. of Catholic engineers and civil engineers not proportionate to their nos. in the country. Relatively fewer Catholics in senior positions in the public and private sectors

Housing
o Provision of public housing by city council is another grievance of the Irish Catholics. Public houses partly paid by govt, councils usually consist largely of Protestants
o Often, large Catholic families in need of housing are delayed in getting their houses. 1968: 71% of houses in Dungannon given to Protestants though 53% of the ppl there were Catholics. Catholics frustrated as the shortage of houses meant they would have to wait for many years before they were given their own houses à unfair

Voting Rights
o Before 1968: voting rights a problem in the Protestant-Catholic relationship. Each household entitled to 2 votes, companies entitled to more votes depending on size. Since many companies owned by richer Protestants, they had more votes. Also, Catholics unhappy that voting districts were often drawn up to include a large proportion of Protestants
o Since 1968: everyone entitled to one vote (British subject, lived in UK for 7 yrs), voting districts redrawn to ensure fairness.
o Voting rights no longer a problem, but conflict persists till today as other issues (housing, employment) have not been addressed

HOW DID THE CATHOLICS MAKE THEIR DEMANDS?
From Peaceful Protest Marches to Violence
o Mid 1960s: Civil Rights Movement emerged to demand for equal rights and to protest against unfair treatment of the Catholics. It made peaceful demands for basic rights (housing, jobs, educatn, voting), but was met with hostility and violence from some Protestants, including the police force who thought it was an attempt to weaken the govt. Marked the beginning of a period known as The Troubles
o As the situation worsened, govt called for more help. August 1969: Brit Army units sent there to keep the order. Catholics welcomed them at first as they thought they would be protected. However the army began searching their homes and arresting suspects à Catholics lost faith in Brit Army
o 1972: peaceful civil rights march shot at by Brit soldiers. 13 civilians shot dead, many more wounded. Referred to as Bloody Sunday, turning point for Protestant-Catholic ties
o After 1972: more violence. Catholic homes sometimes petrol-bombed by Protestant mobs in the middle of the night, forcing the families to flee. When the Catholics left, their houses were looted by the mobs. Businesses and pubs which belonged to Catholics were also burnt and bombed. Local police force witnessed but did not stop them. Brit Army often raided Catholic homes, using force and damaging property
o Feeling more desperate, Catholics turned to Irish Republican Army (IRA) for help. It’s an illegal organisation formed largely of Northern Irish Catholics, aim is to use violence to drive the Brit Army and the representatives of the Brit govt out
o Between 1969 and 1993: more than 3000 ppl killed in Protestant-Catholic conflict, IRS responsible for 2/3 of deaths and killing of innocent Protestants

EFFECTS OF THE PROTESTANTS CATHOLIC CONFLICT
Conflict not resolved, innocent often caught in middle of violence.
o E.g. many of the 1750 who died between 1969 and 1977 were not directly involved in the inter-grp violence
Many ppl grow up with prejudices against each other
Affected its economic development. Since the start of the inter-grp violence, economy adversely affected. Tourism decline as violence has frightened away tourists

AFTERMATHThroughout 1970s and 1980s, IRS and reps from Brit govt met to resolve the conflict but failed to come to an agreement. Late 1990sà Brit govt, Irish govt, IRA, Northern Ireland community leaders actively discussed the Northern Ireland peace accord. Peace accord rejected by splinter grp (a grp of ppl who decide to break away from a large grp and form a separate organisation because they no longer agree with the views of the larger group) of IRA, which responded with a series of bomb attacks in Belfast. Agreement reached in 1998. However peace if not certain for Northern Ireland as tension still exists in some sectors of the communi

~nutrition in man~

WE EAT EVERYDAY(unless anorexic) ARE WE REALLY WHAT WE EAT? (i eat sweets :))

Why do we need food?
provide energy
synthesize new protoplasm
- growth and repair of worn out parts
- reproduction
prevent deficiency diseases
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Carbohydrates

monosaccharides - glucose, fructose, galactose
disaccharides - maltose, lactose, sucrose
polysaccharides - starch, cellulose, glycogen

energy source

supporting structures (cellulose cell wall in plant)

energy storage (starch grains in plant cells, glycogen in animal cells)

converted into other organic compounds

formation of nucleic acid

synthesize lubricants (mucus)

produce nectar

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Glycogen- found in liver, muscles
- glucose molecules condense to form highly branched chains of glucose units

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Glycogen and Starch are used as Storage Materials because..........

insoluble in water

>>> do not change osmotic pressure

large molecules

>>> unable to diffuse through membranes

easily hydrolysed

>>> can give energy when needed

compact shape

>>> occupy less space

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Test for Reducing Sugars

BENEDICT'S TEST
- solution(which contains reducing sugars) would change from BLUE to GREEN/YELLOW to ORANGE-RED precipitate
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Fats

Saturated
- lack double bonds
- cholesterol

Unsaturated
- one or more double bonds
- oleic acid (olive oil)

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Test for Fats

Using filter paper
- translucent spot seen on filter paper

Ethanol emulsion test
- add ethanol to solution with fats
- colourless solution obtained (fats dissolves in ethanol)
- add water
- white emulsion obtained (fats cannot dissolve in water)
- heat given out

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Functions of Fats

• provide energy when respired
• stores energy
• insulating material
• restrict water loss
• solvent for fat soluble substances (e.g. vitamins)
• constituent of protoplasm

[I'LL BE BACK.]

Yes, before I go on, just a reminder. TAKE NOTE OF SI UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES DURING PHYSICS EXAM! :D

The SI unit for forces is Newton, or N. A force can be a push or a pull. A force can change the motion of an object (with regards to direction and acceleration) or even the shape of an object.

Newton has THREE laws of motion!

His first law of motion states that a body continutes in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled by a force to do otherwise. In other words, F=0. Because in his SECOND law (see below), F=ma, and a=0 (: thus F=0. ER haha that's so bai chi. ._." Ahem. And the reluctance to change the state of motion (of an object) is called INERTIA. All objects with mass have inertia, even in OUTER SPACE! (should be. haha!)

ANYWAY! His second law states that the net force acting on an object=mass times acceleration of the object. In this case, for F=ma, F is the resultant force, not the applied force. From this formula, we can see that the weight is the mass times acceleration too, thus W=mg. yay.

Frictional force acts in the opposite direction of motion and when an object is stationary, there is no frictional force. If the applied force is less than the frictional force, the object would not move (duh haha).

Newton's third law of motion states that for everyaction there is an equal and opposite direction. For example, the centripetal and centrifugal force. The centripetal force is the force that pulls an object (which is moving around...something) towards the centre of the circle. By right there should be an equal and opposite force, and in this case it is the centrifugal force. However it only exists in theory, as there is really no such force. ._."

OOH A FUN FACT! (HAHA CORNY-NESS) Let me ask you. Why is there a need for a force which keeps the earth orbiting at a constant speed? Because. Well. Um since when the earth orbits, it keeps changing direction, so there will surely be acceleration. Thus there is a force NEEDED to keep the earth going at a constant speed. Imagine if the earth just kept accelerating. Then things would uh...start flying about! hahaha!

Things to note when drawing a force diagram (WREF):
Weight
Reaction force
External forces
Friction force

Now we go on to force diagrams and vector diagrams etc. There isn't much to learn here, because to excel at this drawing part you just need practise. Lots of it, if necessary. (: Once you get the hang of it, er...anyhow draw also can get the answer lah. Haha! Okay I think that's all for forces right? :D BYE!

-- HH! ((: